Toward actionable, coproduced research on boreal birds focused on building respectful partnerships
 
Vers une recherche en coproduction exploitable sur les oiseaux des régions boréales, axée sur l'élaboration de partenariats respectueux

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Context for Coproduced Research on Boreal Birds
  • Indigenous peoples
  • Canadian government agencies and programs
  • Industry
  • Nongovernment organizations
  • Citizens’ groups
  • Academia
• Initiating a Coproduced Research Project
  • Identify potential partners
  • Build relationships
  • Identify mechanisms to inform policy and management
  • Plan and execute research and communications
• Conclusions and Limitations
• Responses to this Article
• Acknowledgments
• Literature Cited

INTRODUCTION

Although Canada’s vast boreal forest (5.5 million km²; Brandt 2009) supports billions of birds from over 300 species (Wells and Blancher 2011, Wells et al. 2014), many bird populations are declining (North American Bird Conservation Initiative Canada 2016). In recent decades, research on boreal birds has increasingly investigated human impacts on bird habitats and populations (Fig. 1; for overviews, see Wells 2008, Wells and Blancher 2011). Canada’s boreal forest is undergoing rapid changes because of increasing resource development (Carlson et al. 2015), climate change (Park et al. 2014), and altered forest fire and insect disturbance regimes (Boulanger et al. 2014, De Grandpré et al. 2018), all of which are expected to impact bird populations (Mahon et al. 2014, Stralberg et al. 2015). Presumably, much of the research on human impacts related to boreal birds is intended to inform their conservation and management (e.g., Morissette et al. 2019, Stralberg et al. 2019, Westwood et al. 2019a; other papers in this feature issue).

Research that leads to data, analysis, or tools that directly inform decision and policies can be termed “actionable” (definition adapted from Palmer 2012, Beever et al. 2014, Walsh et al. 2015, Beier et al. 2017). There is growing global consensus that science is most actionable when produced in collaboration between scientists, potential end-users of the science, and communities implicated in or affected by the research process and outcomes (Houde 2007, Thompson et al. 2011, Armitage et al. 2012, Kothari et al. 2013, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2016, Beier et al. 2017, Evans and Cvitanovic 2018). A fully collaborative research process, which we refer to as “coproduced research,” involves partners in the design, execution, and communication of research results and outcomes (Enquist et al. 2017).

There are substantial gaps between conventional conservation science approaches and ensuring that research informs policy and practice (Cash et al. 2006, McNie 2007, Young et al. 2014, Bertuol-Garcia et al. 2018, Coristine et al. 2018, Moore et al. 2018, Salomon et al. 2018). Research is often conducted under the “loading dock” model: a linear transaction whereby researchers conduct studies, and the results are placed in a written report or peer-reviewed literature under the assumption that it will be found by prospective users (Cash et al. 2006, Young et al. 2014, Beier et al. 2017). The loading dock model limits actionability: research designed without input from potential end-users is less easily applied to decisions or translated into policy (Rogers 1997, Fernández 2016, Beier et al. 2017). End-users may also be unlikely to encounter relevant research in the course of their normal work (Walsh et al. 2015), lack access to academic journal articles (Born et al. 2009), or when they do have access, may not have the time to translate journal articles into policy recommendations (Dasgupta 2017). Given that English is the lingua franca of scientific publication, language may also be a significant barrier to participation and access for nonanglophone end users (Ramírez-Castañeda 2020).

Researchers who want their work to be actionable for addressing conservation challenges can adopt a coproduced research model (Lemos and Morehouse 2005, Dilling and Lemos 2011, Moser 2016, Wall et al. 2017). Coproduced research also improves credibility and saliency over the loading dock model (Moser 2016, Page et al. 2016), and importantly, has the potential to result in more inclusive, just, and socially relevant research (Parsons et al. 2016, Temper and Del Bene 2016, Salomon et al. 2018). This is particularly important in the boreal forest context where scientific research has in many cases ignored or discounted the knowledge systems of Indigenous peoples^[1], disregarded their rights, resulted in unequitable sharing of resources, and negatively impacted their lives, livelihoods, cultures, and connections to the land (Wyatt 2008, Brunet et al. 2016, Indigenous Circle of Experts 2018). There is growing recognition that best efforts in conservation and management include Indigenous peoples as full partners (Nuna 2002, Cantin et al. 2004, Wyatt 2008, Castleden et al. 2012, Kothari et al. 2013, Adams et al. 2014, Papillon and Rodon 2017, Indigenous Circle of Experts 2018), and that Indigenous knowledge and science can improve the quality and actionability of research (Gadgil et al. 1993, Adams et al. 2014, Parsons et al. 2016, Ban et al. 2018, Kutz and Tomaselli 2019).

Coproduced research can present challenges. It is generally much more time consuming and complex than traditional disciplinary sciences (Castleden et al. 2012, Moser 2016). It can be difficult to obtain funding for coproduced research, and funding cycles are often shorter than the timelines needed to build and maintain productive relationships (Théberge et al. 2019). Members of Indigenous communities can also be mistrustful of Western-trained researchers and reluctant to collaborate, particularly if they view the aim of the researchers being to extract Indigenous knowledge, which can be seen as exploitation (Nadasdy 1999, Paci et al. 2002, Baker and Westman 2018). Members of Indigenous and rural communities who do participate in coproduction can also experience significant personal stress (Young et al. 2020). These challenges are particularly salient in the boreal forest of Canada, where the socioeconomic and cultural context is incredibly complex: spanning dozens of jurisdictions when considering Indigenous peoples, provinces, territories, municipalities, and other actors involved in boreal forest conservation and management (Wells 2011).

In this paper, we aim to help Western-trained academic researchers, particularly those in the natural sciences and early career stages, navigate this complex context. How does one identify potential research partners, initiate a partnership, and work respectfully with these partners in a transdisciplinary way? The skills required to initiate and execute coproduced research are rarely taught as part of Western science pedagogy. We contextualize coproduced research on boreal birds by introducing potential partners for boreal bird research, and in particular we emphasize best practices for coproduction of research between non-Indigenous researchers and Indigenous partners. We introduce a four stage model for coproducing research: (1) identify potential partners, (2) build relationships, (3) identify mechanisms to inform policy and management, and (4) plan and execute research. We provide accompanying tools to identify potential partners and evaluate partnership strength, as well as “bright spots” (Cvitanovic and Hobday 2018): examples of coproduced research on boreal birds influencing policy and practice. Throughout, we invite researchers to consider the diverse perspectives of many knowledge-holders through development of intercultural relationships in support of better conservation of boreal birds.

CONTEXT FOR COPRODUCED RESEARCH ON BOREAL BIRDS

Coproduction of ecological research is sometimes termed translational ecology or transdisciplinary science (Lang et al. 2012, Moser 2016, Enquist et al. 2017). We define coproduction of research according to Enquist et al. (2017:542)^[2]: “an approach that embodies intentional processes by which ecologists, stakeholders, and decision makers work collaboratively to develop and deliver ecological research that, ideally, results in improved environment-related decision making.” Various authors have defined coproduction and its stages differently (e.g., a three-stage model enumerated by Page et al. 2016), but generally, most definitions of coproduced research include elements of research design, conduct, and dissemination that are completed in relationship with partners. We define a partner as an individual, organization, or community who participates in all phases of a research project to a degree that they have autonomously determined.

In Canada’s boreal forest, researchers should expect to consider different sectors of society as potential partners. We simplify these sectors to six: Indigenous peoples, Canadian government agencies and programs, private industry, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), citizens groups, and academia. Before initiating a partnership, it is important that researchers understand these sectors of society, their governance, and their potential interest in actionable research on boreal birds. We give a brief review for context.

Indigenous peoples

Boreal birds have been stewarded by Indigenous peoples for millennia, and many bird species continue to have great importance in Indigenous cultures (Kuhnlein and Humphries 2017). There are approximately 600 Indigenous communities in the Canadian boreal forest (including First Nations, Métis, and Inuit; Wells et al. 2013, Reid 2014), and communities and their members generally hold Aboriginal and Treaty Rights or Land Claim Agreements on their traditional territories. Indigenous nations, rights-holders, and communities have jurisdiction over boreal lands and therefore researchers must follow their laws, protocols, procedures, and guidelines to receive approval to conduct research. Indigenous governments, comanagement boards, communities, and individuals often lead their own research (Cram and Phillips 2012). Such groups may seek out academically trained scientists from outside the community to assist with this research, such as recruitment of scientists to provide training on bird species at risk by Moose Cree First Nation (MCFN 2018). There is a mandated requirement for Indigenous knowledge to be included in some environmental decision-making processes, such as impact assessment (Impact Assessment Act, S.C. 2019, c. 28, s. 1).

Though we include comanagement boards in this section, they represent institutes of public governments that are created by land claim agreements. Comanagement boards include representatives appointed by Indigenous and non-Indigenous governments, and often lead or conduct research (Box 1).

Canadian government agencies and programs

Canadian government agencies^[3] at federal, provincial, and territorial levels run programs intended to fulfill their legislated obligations, including delivering on responsibilities toward the protection of boreal birds and their habitat. These programs conduct or fund research, participate in comanagement boards and regulatory processes, and plan, establish, or implement protected areas. Agencies commonly fund other partners, including conservation or education actions by NGOs or other groups (e.g., projects funded by Ontario’s Species at Risk Stewardship Fund, the Northwest Territories Species Conservation and Recovery Fund, and others) or academic research, such as through Canada’s National Research Council. Agencies regularly partner with researchers, Indigenous governments, Indigenous communities and organizations, comanagement boards, NGOs, local people, and citizen scientists to accomplish shared objectives of research and conservation implementation (Box 2).

Industry

The boreal forest is rich in many natural resources, including fresh water, wood fiber, peat, oil and gas, minerals, and hydroelectric potential, among others. Half of Canada’s annual timber harvest occurs in this region, with nearly 200 communities (both Indigenous and non-Indigenous) dependent on forestry (Reid 2014). Mineral and oil and gas deposits, most yet untouched, are projected to be worth billions of dollars (Marshall 2016, CAPP 2017). On the other hand, the ecosystem services of the boreal forest are estimated to be worth over Can$700 billion annually (Anielski and Wilson 2009). Most of the boreal forest region comprises publicly owned lands, and companies lease geographically defined tenures on a long-term basis from governments (Reid 2014). Forestry, mineral, oil and gas, and hydroelectric rights are leased separately to companies in those sectors, often on spatially overlapping tenures (Cumming and Armstrong 2001). Private companies, or umbrella organizations representing an industry, frequently partner with researchers to gain insight into the impacts of resource development on wildlife. Some organizations broker partnerships between academic researchers and industry (e.g., Mitacs Inc., https://www.mitacs.ca/en/about). Some companies or organizations also provide funding opportunities for research.

Nongovernment organizations

NGOs are usually nonprofit organizations acting to effect changes at international, national, or subnational levels. Here, we specifically refer to NGOs interested in environmental conservation as related to boreal birds. NGOs vary greatly in size, capacity, and approaches to achieve conservation outcomes (Redford et al. 2003). They may be focused on a particular geographic area, species, habitat type, or threat. Some NGOs have staff scientists and/or coordinate with volunteers to conduct research or monitoring activities to support their objectives (e.g., Kareiva et al. 2014). Some fund academic research on birds, for example, the Peregrine Fund or the Institute for Wetland and Waterfowl Research, providing direct opportunities for coproduction between NGOs and researchers. Some NGOs engage in advocacy and lobbying of government and industry to change legislation, policy, and practices to better support conservation objectives.

Citizens’ groups

Citizen scientists, naturalists, and community knowledge holders are often-underutilized partners in boreal bird research (Bonney et al. 2014, 2016). Although reports and data collected by citizen scientists are often used in research products (FitzGerald et al. 2017, La Sorte et al. 2017), citizen scientists themselves are rarely involved as full partners in coproduced research (Bonney et al. 2016). Yet, citizen scientists are a resource of enormous potential and skill: the most popular global platform for citizen ornithology, eBird, has almost 400,000 members who have contributed over 27 million checklists since 2002 (http://www.ebird.org). Although citizen scientist platforms are easily accessible by academic researchers, e.g., eBird, iNaturalist, or Facebook groups for local birding associations, formal partnership with citizens’ groups generally needs to be initiated by researchers.

Academia

Academically trained scientists are usually skilled at locating and initiating partnerships with colleagues in their field of study. Potential academic partners involved in boreal bird research can generally be located by searching the literature, participating in conferences or symposia, or joining relevant academic societies (e.g., Society of Canadian Ornithologists, https://www.sco-soc.ca/). It can be more difficult to locate colleagues in other disciplines who may research similar subjects with a different lens. Transdisciplinary academic partnerships may be particularly useful for producing actionable research by combining the expertise of biologists and ecologists with that of legal scholars, sociologists, anthropologists, and political scientists (e.g., Moore et al. 2018, Westwood et al. 2019b, c).

INITIATING A COPRODUCED RESEARCH PROJECT

For researchers new to coproducing research with partners, we offer two observations. To be done well, coproduced research takes time, particularly in the phase of establishing active, respectful relationships (Castleden et al. 2012, Parsons et al. 2016). Second, building these relationships is of limited value as an isolated affair or when too narrowly focused. A coproduction model is much more effective when sustained for mutual benefit over the long term (Armitage et al. 2009, Kothari et al. 2013, Balvanera et al. 2017).

We provide guidance for and examples of coproduced research on boreal birds in the following four stages (Fig. 2): (1) identify potential partners; (2) build relationships; (3) identify mechanisms to inform policy and management; (4) execute research and communications plans. Researchers should also consult the accompanying worksheets (Appendix 1), which include exercises to guide a project through consideration of each of the stages of coproduced research.

Identify potential partners

A coproduced research project can be initiated in many ways. For example, researchers can begin with a research interest in a particular species or region and then approach potential partners. In other instances, entities that have their own defined research interests may approach researchers. In the context of existing partnerships, researchers and their partners may jointly identify research interests.

Potential partners will include those who have a vested interest in, or may be affected by, the research questions, process, or outcome.^[4] For example, potential partners may be interested in the bird species the researcher wishes to study. They may live on, have rights to, or use resources on the land under consideration for the study. The results of the research may have legal implications for a potential partner, e.g., locating a species at risk on privately owned land.

If relationships are not already established, researchers can begin their search for partners based on the species or geographical area on which they are interested in conducting research. However, researchers with existing partnerships should also consider the evolving context for their work and whether they should reach out to additional partners. Boundary spanners are the individuals or organizations who cultivate and maintain relationships between sectors (Safford et al. 2017, Council of Canadian Academies 2019) and offer a good starting point for establishing new partnerships. Boundary spanners^[5] may assist in convening partners or coordinate coproduced research (Cash et al. 2006). Boundary spanners are particularly important because evidence demonstrates that communities often experience “consultation fatigue” (Expert Panel for the Review of Environmental Assessment Processes 2018, Young et al. 2020), with individual community members experiencing significant personal stress and exhaustion from ongoing consultation, coproduction, and/or cogovernance relationships. For this reason, we recommend that researchers first contact Indigenous organizations and governments, comanagement boards, Canadian government agencies, industry, NGOs, groups of citizen scientists, and consortiums comprising representatives from multiple sectors to serve as boundary spanners, rather than approaching communities directly.

We discuss here some boundary spanning consortiums specifically related to conservation of boreal birds. Some focus on recovery and conservation of a single species at risk, like the Canada Warbler International Conservation Initiative (Box 3) or the International Rusty Blackbird Working Group (http://rustyblackbird.org/). Large multisector boundary spanners include the North American Bird Conservation Initiative (http://nabci.net/), BirdLife International (Devenish et al. 2009), and Partners in Flight (https://partnersinflight.org/), the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (http://nawmp.wetlandnetwork.ca), and the Canadian Migration Monitoring Network (McCracken et al. 2012). Many boundary spanning consortiums may focus on particular geographic regions and include taxa other than birds, such as the Northwest Boreal Landscape Conservation Cooperative (NWB LCC 2015). Others focus on a particular industry (e.g., Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement, http://cbfa-efbc.ca/), or a combination of geographic area and industry (e.g., Joint Oil Sands Implementation Plan, https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/oil-sands-monitoring.html). The Conservation for Reconciliation Partnership (https://conservation-reconciliation.ca/) aims to bring together Indigenous leaders and communities with conservation researchers and organizations to promote Indigenous-led conservation. Consortiums like those listed above generally require research support to achieve their goals, and their activities foster advancement in policy and practice toward conservation of boreal birds. They also provide a forum for engaging experts who are well-acquainted with the research and management landscapes and priorities, through regular meetings and other communications. They can be valuable advisors for planning coproduced research, as well as for providing the architecture and enthusiasm to sustain research partnerships over time. By contacting boundary-spanning consortiums, researchers may obtain introductions to potential partners. However, researchers should also do their own outreach and ask known contacts about potential partners related to a region or species of interest.

It is critical that before beginning any field-based study, researchers identify the holders of rights to lands and resources within their proposed study area. Just as one would obtain permission from a private landholder, researchers should ask permission of Indigenous rights-holders (and acknowledge them in publications and communications products). Researchers should be aware of the traditional territories and treaties relevant to the geographic area they wish to study (for maps of Indigenous lands: https://native-land.ca/ or https://geo.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/cippn-fnpim/index-eng.html). Though this is particularly salient for field studies for which land use permissions or permits may be required, Indigenous government approvals should be sought, and community involvement considered, when conducting reviews and meta-analyses.

Boundary spanners, particularly government agencies, can help locate private landowners and other rights-holders. National NGOs that work on bird conservation, such as Ducks Unlimited Canada, Bird Studies Canada, or the Nature Conservancy of Canada, are also likely to have staff who are aware of other NGOs operating in the region of interest, as well as other contacts. In addition, many naturalist groups hold regular meetings, presentations, nature walks, and information sessions, and are often very active on social media. These groups may yield vital information for researchers, such as occurrences of hard to find species, and local knowledge about habitats and land use change.

Build relationships

Building positive relationships early in the research planning and design process will foster collaboration and may lead to greater awareness, acceptance, and willingness from partners to use research results in their policies and management activities (Beier et al. 2017). Building such relationships takes time (Castleden et al. 2012). There are many Indigenous and resource-dependent communities dispersed throughout Canada’s boreal forest, and conserving birds and habitat for the present and the future will require building respectful, long-term relationships with communities as partners.

After assessing potential partners as well as identifying boundary spanners who can facilitate partnerships, researchers should ensure they are sufficiently aware of and competent in the culture of their potential partners. They should self-assess their own ethical responsibilities toward both new potential partnerships, and existing partnerships (Box 4; Appendix 1), and consult Cram and Phillips’s (2012) readiness scale for transdisciplinary research. By doing both of these exercises, researchers can identify areas of weakness, and work with partners to strengthen relationships. Being unable to answer self-assessment questions does not necessarily preclude establishing a partnership, but elucidates gaps that require learning and deeper engagement (although see Aveling 2013, where a non-Indigenous researcher concluded that they should not conduct research within Indigenous contexts). 

When non-Indigenous researchers wish to work with Indigenous partners, it is important to consider the historical context of Indigenous peoples and researchers or institutions involved in research. In the boreal region, it has been reported that Indigenous perspectives and priorities for environmental resource management have been consistently ignored and/or marginalized (Stevenson 2004, Morse et al. 2005). There is increasing awareness of the need to move away from “researcher-driven” protocols and shift to partnerships with full and meaningful participation of Indigenous communities that respect their Aboriginal and treaty rights (Karst 2010, Stiegman and Castleden 2015).

Any socially just approach to bird research on Indigenous lands or traditional territories must include Indigenous partners as they wish to be included (Forsyth 2008, Papillon and Rodon 2017). Canada has recently signed the United National Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP; United Nations 2008), and prior to pursuing research partnerships with Indigenous governments and communities, researchers should familiarize themselves with how UNDRIP may apply to their organization’s work or that of other partners (see A-In-Chut Atleo 2012). Researchers should ensure to meet, if not exceed, norms of free, prior, and informed consent (see Papillon and Rodon 2017 for a discussion) by actively pursuing Indigenous government approvals and engaging Indigenous and other local communities at all steps as partners, whenever possible.

Western-trained researchers should make themselves aware of and open to different knowledge systems that may be involved in cross-cultural collaborations (Wyatt 2008, Cram and Phillips 2012), before seeking to work with Indigenous scientists and knowledge-holders. They should also follow respectful practices when engaging Indigenous governments and communities in coproduction of research (Box 5). Many Indigenous communities self-define their knowledge systems (ITK 2018). Although there are many Western-led discussions of bridging knowledge systems or coproducing research between Indigenous and Western researchers (Gadgil et al. 1993, Tengö et al. 2014, Alexander et al. 2019, Institute on Governance 2019, Théberge et al. 2019), many Western conceptions of Indigenous knowledge have not been defined by Indigenous peoples themselves (Nelson 2005). By better understanding these knowledge systems, researchers can more meaningfully include Indigenous knowledge in their work, often adding value to the ecological nature of the study (Gadgil et al. 1993).

Identify mechanisms to inform policy and management

To improve conservation outcomes for boreal birds, research can target specific mechanisms for policy or action, most of which involve preventing or remediating human impacts on habitat. We group mechanisms that can inform conservation policy and initiatives into four types: (1) legal mechanisms, (2) land conservation, (3) industrial management, and (4) education and training. We briefly discuss the types of boreal bird research that can inform each type. Identifying relevant mechanisms can also help identify potential partners who have the leverage to use or change those mechanism (Evans and Cvitanovic 2018).

Legal mechanisms

In Canada, legal mechanisms for achieving conservation goals typically include laws, set as Acts of Parliament or Legislature, and the regulations that specify how an act will be implemented. Responsibility for protection and management of birds is divided between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments as a result of the Canadian Constitution. The federal government also has the power to ratify international agreements, which may then be enacted nationally through an act. Provinces and in some cases, territories, can also enact legislation and associated regulations. These jurisdictions may further delegate to municipalities the right to enact certain bylaws pertaining to wildlife.

The management of most migratory bird species on any lands is a federal responsibility because of the 1916 Migratory Bird Convention between the United Kingdom, representing Canada, and the United States. Protections were then enshrined under the Migratory Birds Convention Act (S.C. 1994, c.22) in 1917, and later amended in 1994. For example, under this Act, the hunting of migratory game birds, e.g., ducks and geese, is regulated primarily by the federal government whereas provinces and territories have jurisdiction over the hunting of nonmigratory game birds such as grouse, ptarmigan, and turkeys. Management of most boreal forest lands is the jurisdiction of the provinces or territories. However, the federal government can implement habitat protection orders on provincial Crown lands under the SARA (S.C. 2002, c.29), though this power is rarely exercised.

Although some summaries of government laws and regulations related to boreal birds exist, many are outdated or only relevant to a specific topic (wildlife conservation in Canada, Lynch-Stewart et al. 1999; species at risk in North America, Temby and Stoett 2017; forest management practices in Canada, NCASI 2014). We summarize key Canadian laws and agreements related to conservation of boreal birds (Table 1) and encourage others to compile and share regional, provincial, or territorial summaries (for Newfoundland and Labrador, see Appendix 2). Laws and regulations related to agreements with Indigenous peoples can change depending on specific land claim agreements or treaties, such as the ability to take wildlife under harvesting rights, e.g., the Nunavik Inuit Land Claims Agreement and others (see also Istvanffy 2011). As unsettled land claims evolve in the courts (Government of Canada 2018), the future may bring greater Indigenous governance over boreal lands and resources, which could have profound implications for conservation for boreal birds.

Research is needed to support the implementation of, or adherence to, laws. Reducing harm to species and habitats is an ongoing challenge for industry and government, and scientists are often asked to support the development of policies or practices to address these issues (e.g., NCASI and FPAC 2016, CEA 2018). In addition, scientists (usually consultants) may be hired by a company to conduct surveys or develop species-habitat models to determine the presence, and in some cases trends of, migratory bird populations in their operating areas, with a focus on species at risk. Research is also conducted to identify possible impacts of new industrial development on species. Federal, provincial, and territorial government staff can be useful boundary spanners for understanding the interface between research and law.

Land conservation

Boreal birds can be protected from human impacts by conserving land. Methods for land conservation range from government-led creation of new parks and wilderness areas, to private preservation and stewardship of land by NGOs, to areas managed for resource use by Indigenous communities, and many others (MacKinnon et al. 2015). Research is needed to identify new areas to protect or manage for boreal bird species (Westwood et al. 2017b, Stralberg et al. 2018, Bale et al. 2020). Research is also needed to support ongoing management, monitoring, and evaluation of the effectiveness of protected areas for conserving boreal birds (Westwood et al. 2019a). Future expansion of protected areas within the boreal forest will necessarily involve Indigenous governments as well as comanagement boards. Indigenous peoples are currently leaders in some of the most progressive, cutting-edge land and wildlife comanagement plans and models in the world (Badiou et al. 2013, Carlson et al. 2015; Box 6).

Industrial management

Market pressures have incentivized industries to offer products considered to be more environmentally and socially acceptable than those produced by competitors (Rametsteiner and Simula 2003, Cashore et al. 2005, Luckert et al. 2011). In the boreal forest, forest certification is an important mechanism to ensure forest management is done to a standard that reduces harm to wildlife (Kneeshaw et al. 2000, Rametsteiner and Simula 2003). All three certification standards used in the boreal forest (Canadian Standards Association Group 2016, Forest Stewardship Council Canada Working Group 2004, SFI 2015) include requirements pertaining to conservation of biodiversity, migratory birds, and species at risk. All major forest management companies in Canada are now certified under one or more of these systems (Certification Canada 2018). Some of these certifications require companies to directly fund or provide in-kind support to research on migratory birds (e.g., Loehle et al. 2006, ABMI 2009) while others provide grants to NGOs or academic institutions for conservation-related research (e.g., SFI 2018) and updating standards of practice (Finney 2013).

Although other resource sectors in Canada have not implemented certification programs, the mining industry has developed an independently verified management program called, “Toward Sustainable Mining” (TSM; Mining Association of Canada 2017), which incorporates biodiversity commitments, planning, and reporting, among other measures.

Research about human impacts on birds is directly relevant to companies’ best management practices (BMPs). BMPs detail practices that may be applied during planning, execution, or monitoring phases of a project, and are intended to have a neutral or net positive effect on migratory birds or their habitat (ECCC 2018b). Research can be used to identify ways of reducing harm to nests and eggs (e.g., Ontario Stone, Sand & Gravel Association 2017), or educate personnel to identify or manage nests or nesting areas (Westwood et al. 2017a). Some industrial sectors have developed BMPs related to migratory birds in Canada on their own, e.g., pipelines (CEPA 2013) or in conjunction with government, e.g., gravel quarrying (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry 2017). Coproduction between industry and external researchers can allow for better integration of existing scientific knowledge into BMPs, as well as new projects specifically designed to test and improve BMPs (Box 7; Fig. 3).

Education and training

Education and training about boreal birds and their habitats are offered in many forms by many partners, ranging from workshops on bird identification to funding graduate students studying boreal birds, and beyond. Funders support education opportunities that researchers can support and participate in, e.g., the Northwest Territories Species Conservation and Recovery Fund supports several Rusty Blackbird awareness campaigns (NWT Species at Risk 2018). There are many opportunities for researchers to volunteer their time and knowledge with universities, citizen’s groups, NGOs, and more. Indigenous communities across the boreal region are also training on-the-ground guardians, whose duties typically span land and resource management, research and monitoring (including bird-specific monitoring), safety and enforcement, and education in protected areas within their traditional territories (e.g., Łutsël K’é Dene First Nation 2016, Coastal First Nations Great Bear Initiative 2018). Indigenous customs can also inform management, and through coproduction, Indigenous partners may have suggestions for how to apply these to achieve management objectives for boreal birds.

Plan and execute research and communications

After relationships with partners are established around research questions of mutual interest, and partners have collaboratively identified mechanisms by which research can be used to advance conservation of boreal birds, partners can develop formal plans for conducting and communicating research. There exists a great body of work about research planning and execution, but we recommend the following guides in particular that are focused on coproducing actionable research: Wolfe et al. 2011, Lang et al. 2012, Adams et al. 2014, Tondu et al. 2014, ACCCNRS 2015, Chigbu et al. 2016, Moser 2016, Parsons et al. 2016, Beier et al. 2017, Wall et al. 2017.

Beyond those offered in the literature, we make several additional suggestions for areas researchers should consider when planning and executing coproduced research. Each project should be customized to include parameters, timelines, and approaches agreed to by all partners. At all times, researchers should maintain principles of respectful partnership. Involving partners in research planning and implementation is key, and may include guidance and oversight at every step of the research process as well as paid participation of local community members in data collection and analysis. Researchers should also adhere to standards of scientific integrity, including methodological rigor, upholding research ethics, responsible research conduct, reproducibility (where applicable), and openness of information (Innovation Science and Economic Development Canada 2018, Jacob et al. 2018, Westwood et al. 2019c).

Research planning should also be paired with communications planning because communicating research results in a variety of formats is necessary to ensure actionability and maintain relationships (Dasgupta 2017, Kowalczewska and Behagel 2019). Just as a research plan includes when and how partners will participate in research, communications planning should include how and when members of the partnership will communicate with each other and broader audiences. Communications plans should include specific outputs that are desired by partners and that meet their needs (Adams et al. 2014, Moore et al. 2018, Salomon et al. 2018). Many partners do not have access to scientific literature, so upholding standards of open access is important (Government of Canada 2016, Gregr et al. 2017, Westwood et al. 2019c) as well as making brief plain-language summaries and presentations available. In remote communities, internet access may not be reliable, universally accessible, or culturally appropriate. Researchers should consider broadening their usual areas of communications to include radio ads, community web and social media pages, community groups, publications in trade magazines and newspapers, and media interviews. Briefing notes can be particularly useful in informing government policy.

Despite the advantages of coproduced research toward actionability for conserving boreal birds, as previously discussed, this approach is of less value as a one-time affair. Ideally, research partnerships will be sustained by their host organizations and evolve, allowing partners to accomplish multiple projects together (Box 8) as research priorities change over time. Reflection and adaptation, as well as iterative revaluation of partnership strength (Box 4) will be key components in maintaining successful partnerships for research coproduction over the long term.

CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Applying research results to policy and decision making is a challenge that goes well beyond the scientific method (ACCCNRS 2015, Beier et al. 2017, Evans and Cvitanovic 2018, Reed et al. 2018). We hope researchers will use the coproduction model in this paper (and the worksheets in Appendix 1) to engage in research that is not only actionable for the conservation of boreal birds, but fully respects the agency of partners (Reo et al. 2017). Nevertheless, we recognize that the review we have provided has several limitations.

First, environmental governance is ever changing. We have described some potential partners related to boreal bird research, but this is only a snapshot in time. Further, we have only described potential partners and mechanisms for achieving conservation outcomes to make readers aware of their existence, but we have not evaluated their effectiveness. We welcome future work comparing and contrasting programs, within and between sectors, to assess their effectiveness toward conserving habitat and populations of boreal birds.

We also recognize that many birds that breed in the boreal forest reside or migrate through other parts of North America, the Caribbean, and Latin America (Wells and Blancher 2011). Actions taken in Canada may be insufficient to protect species threatened on their migratory or wintering grounds (Marra et al. 2015). Ideally, coproduction of research for migratory species should be international, spanning the full annual cycle of boreal birds. We encourage researchers to communicate and collaborate with partners outside of species’ breeding ranges as much as possible, to ensure that their work is positioned to contribute to a full annual cycle research and conservation framework.

Finally, the authors come from a diversity of sectors, institutions, and cultures living and operating in Canada’s boreal forest, or are scholars from outside of this region who study related principles and practices of coproduction. We offer recommendations from our experiences but recognize that we cannot capture all perspectives. Still, we hope this guide will catalyze conversations about coproduced research amongst researchers in their own institutions and communities, as well as offering immediately usable design and process principles.

Conserving and sustainably managing Canada’s boreal forest, its birds, and our common future, requires substantive coproduction of knowledge, policy, and natural resource management practice. Although we have emphasized boreal birds, the approach recommended herein could apply to other taxa and regions. We encourage researchers to adopt coproduction practices early in their careers and instill values of coproduction in the scientists they mentor (Courter 2011). In this way, researchers can not only maximize their own contributions to the conservation of boreal birds and their habitats, but also support partners, particularly Indigenous rights-holders, governments, and local communities, to do the same.

__________

^[1] In this paper we use the term “Indigenous peoples” to reflect current convention for the Government of Canada (Government of Canada 2017), though other terms may be used to reflect either the names a given people use to refer to themselves, or historical documentation (such as legal cases, or “Aboriginal peoples” in the case of Canada’s Constitution).
^[2] Enquist et al. (2017) defined “translational ecology,” however, we use “coproduction” interchangeably and thus adopt the same definition.
^[3] Although Canadian governments use both the term “department” and “agency” to refer to their major branches, we use “agency” as a catch-all inclusive of both agencies and departments.
^[4] We have chosen the word “partners” deliberately. Though some authors would use terms such as “stakeholders,” “actors,” or “interest groups” synonymously, such language can reinforce obstacles to participation by Indigenous peoples (Reo et al. 2017).
^[5]The term “boundary spanner” is sometimes used synonymously with “knowledge broker” (Cooke and Vermaire 2015) and “bridging organization” (Fernández 2016). However, these terms have other meanings specifically related to knowledge exchange (e.g., Chapman et al. 2015, Alexander et al. 2019) and we use boundary spanner to specifically refer to potential brokers for relationships.

LITERATURE CITED

A-In-Chut Atleo, S. 2012. Presentation to the House Of Commons Standing Committee on Environment and Sustainable Development to provide recommendations regarding the development of a national conservation plan. Assembly of First Nations, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: http://www.afn.ca/2012/05/03/presentation-to-the-house-of-commons-standing-committee-on-environment/

Adams, M. S., J. Carpenter, J. A. Housty, D. Neasloss, P. C. Paquet, C. Service, J. Walkus, and C. T. Darimont. 2014. Toward increased engagement between academic and indigenous community partners in ecological research. Ecology and Society 19(3):5. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06569-190305

Advisory Committee on Climate Change and Natural Resource Science (ACCCNRS). 2015. Guiding principles and recommended practices for co-producing actionable science: a how-to-guide for DOI climate science centers and the National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center. Pages 1-20 How-To-Guide for the Co-Production of Actionable Science. Actionable Science Working Group ACCCNRS, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., USA.

Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute (ABMI). 2009. The status of biodiversity in Alberta-Pacific Forest Industries’ Forest Management Agreement Area. Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Initiative, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Alexander, S. M., J. F. Provencher, D. A. Henri, J. J. Taylor, and S. J. Cooke. 2019. Bridging Indigenous and science-based knowledge in coastal-marine research, monitoring, and management in Canada: a systematic map protocol. Environmental Evidence 8(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-019-0159-1

Anielski, M., and S. Wilson. 2009. Counting Canada’s natural capital: assessing the real value of Canada’s boreal ecosystems. Pembina Institute and Canadian Boreal Initiative, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Armitage, D., R. De Loë, and R. Plummer. 2012. Environmental governance and its implications for conservation practice. Conservation Letters 5(4):245-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00238.x

Armitage, D. R., R. Plummer, F. Berkes, R. I. Arthur, A. T. Charles, I. J. Davidson-Hunt, A. P. Diduck, N. C. Doubleday, D. S. Johnson, M. Marschke, P. McConney, E. W. Pinkerton, and E. K. Wollenberg. 2009. Adaptive co-management for social-ecological complexity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7(2):95-102. https://doi.org/10.1890/070089

Aveling, N. 2013. ‘Don’t talk about what you don’t know’: on (not) conducting research with/in Indigenous contexts. Critical Studies in Education 54(2):203-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2012.724021

Badiou, P., R. Baldwin, M. Carlson, M. Darveau, P. Drapeau, K. Gaston, J. Jacobs, J. Kerr, S. Levin, M. Manseau, G. Orians, S. Pimm, H. Possingham, P. Raven, F. Reid, T. Root, N. Roulet, J. Schaefer, D. Schindler, J. Strittholt, N. Turner, and J. Wells. 2013. Conserving the world’s last great forest is possible: here’s how. International Boreal Conservation Science Panel.

Baker, J. M., and C. N. Westman. 2018. Extracting knowledge: social science, environmental impact assessment, and Indigenous consultation in the oil sands of Alberta, Canada. Extractive Industries and Society 5(1):144-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.12.008

Bale, S., K. F. Beazley, A. Westwood, and P. Bush. 2020. The benefits of using topographic features to predict climate-resilient habitat for migratory forest landbirds: an example for the Rusty Blackbird, Olive-sided Flycatcher, and Canada Warbler. Condor 122(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/condor/duz057

Balvanera, P., T. M. Daw, T. Gardner, B. Martín-López, A. Norström, C. Ifejika Speranza, M. Spierenburg, E. M. Bennett, M. Farfan, M. Hamann, J. N. Kittinger, T. Luthe, M. Maass, G. D. Peterson, and G. Pérez-Verdin. 2017. Key features for more successful place-based sustainability research on social-ecological systems: a Programme on Ecosystem Change and Society (PECS) perspective. Ecology and Society 22(1):14. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08826-220114

Ban, N. C., A. Frid, M. Reid, B. Edgar, D. Shaw, and P. Siwallace. 2018. Incorporate Indigenous perspectives for impactful research and effective management. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2:1680-1683. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-018-0706-0

Barker, N. K. S., S. G. Cumming, and M. Darveau. 2014. Models to predict the distribution and abundance of breeding ducks in Canada. Avian Conservation and Ecology 9(2):7. https://doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00699-090207

Beever, E. A., B. J. Mattsson, M. J. Germino, M. Post van der Burg, J. B. Bradford, and M. W. Brunson. 2014. Successes and challenges from formation to implementation of eleven broad-extent conservation programs. Conservation Biology 28(2):302-214. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12233

Beier, P., L. J. Hansen, L. Helbrecht, and D. Behar. 2017. A how-to guide for coproduction of actionable science. Conservation Letters 10(3):288-296. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12300

Bertuol-Garcia, D., C. Morsello, C. N. El-Hani, and R. Pardini. 2018. A conceptual framework for understanding the perspectives on the causes of the science-practice gap in ecology and conservation. Biological Reviews 93(2):1032-1055. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12385

Bonney, R., T. B. Phillips, H. L. Ballard, and J. W. Enck. 2016. Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science? Public Understanding of Science 25(1):2-16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662515607406

Bonney, R., J. L. Shirk, T. B. Phillips, A. Wiggins, H. L. Ballard, A. J. Miller-Rushing, and J. K. Parrish. 2014. Next steps for citizen science. Science 343(6178):1436-1437. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251554

Born, J., V. Boreux, and M. J. Lawes. 2009. Synthesis: sharing ecological knowledge - the way forward. Biotropica 41(5):586-588. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00573.x

Boulanger, Y., S. Gauthier, and P. J. Burton. 2014. A refinement of models projecting future Canadian fire regimes using homogeneous fire regime zones. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 44(4):365-376. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2013-0372

Brandt, J. P. 2009. The extent of the North American boreal zone. Environmental Reviews 17:101-161. https://doi.org/10.1139/A09-004

Brunet, N. D., G. M. Hickey, and M. M. Humphries. 2016. Local participation and partnership development in Canada’s Arctic research: challenges and opportunities in an age of empowerment and self-determination. Polar Record 52(3):345-359. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003224741500090X

Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). 2017. Statistical handbook for Canada’s upstream petroleum industry. Technical Report. CAPP, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/statistics/statistical-handbook

Canadian Electricity Association (CEA). 2018. Bird beneficial management practices guide for utilities. Prepared by Stantec Consulting Ltd. for the Canadian Electricity Association, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Canadian Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA). 2013. Migratory Birds Convention Act: a best management practice for pipelines. CEPA, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Canadian Standards Association Group. 2016. Sustainable forest management: national standard of Canada. CAN/CSA-Z809, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Cantin, D., A. Blagovidov, and A. Butorin. 2004. The boreal forest study: finding exceptional protected area sites in the boreal ecozone that could merit world heritage status: consultation draft - February 2003. World heritage boreal zone workshop. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Carlson, M., J. Wells, and M. Jacobson. 2015. Balancing the relationship between protection and sustainable management in Canada’s boreal forest. Conservation and Society 13(1):13-22. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.161209

Cash, D. W., J. C. Borck, and A. G. Patt. 2006. Countering the loading-dock approach to linking science and decision making: comparative analysis of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) forecasting systems. Science, Technology, & Human Values 31(4):465-494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243906287547

Cashore, B., G. Cornelis van Kooten, I. Vertinsky, G. Auld, and J. Affolderbach. 2005. Private or self-regulation? A comparative study of forest certification choices in Canada, the United States and Germany. Forest Policy and Economics 7:53-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-9341(03)00011-X

Castleden, H., V. S. Morgan, and C. Lamb. 2012. “I spent the first year drinking tea”: exploring Canadian university researchers’ perspectives on community-based participatory research involving Indigenous peoples. Canadian Geographer 56(2):160-179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.2012.00432.x

Certification Canada. 2018. Forest management certification. Certification Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: http://certificationcanada.org/en/certification/forest-management-certification/

Céspedes, L. N., and N. J. Bayly. 2019. Over-winter ecology and relative density of Canada Warbler Cardellina canadensis in Colombia: the basis for defining conservation priorities for a sharply declining long-distance migrant. Bird Conservation International 29:232-248. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270918000229

Chapman, J. M., D. Algera, M. Dick, E. E. Hawkins, M. J. Lawrence, R. J. Lennox, A. M. Rous, C. M. Souliere, H. L. J. Stemberger, D. P. Struthers, M. Vu, T. D. Ward, A. J. Zolderdo, and S. J. Cooke. 2015. Being relevant: practical guidance for early career researchers interested in solving conservation problems. Global Ecology and Conservation 4:334-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2015.07.013

Chigbu, U. E., F. Masum, W. T. de Vries, F. Siegert, Z. A. Mekuria, P. Sakaria, A. I. Agboeze, K. L. Assoua, A. M. Ntiador, C. Mulenga, A. Amelia, I. I. Kakulu, P. Faria, J. Adjue, and C. Kaghoma. 2016. Participatory rapid co-design for transformative resource governance research in the Gulf of Guinea. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 20:15-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.04.002

Coastal First Nations Great Bear Initiative. 2018. Coastal guardian watchmen program. Coastal First Nations Great Bear Initiative, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. [online] URL: https://coastalguardianwatchmen.ca/haida-gwaii-watchmen-program

Convention on Biological Diversity. 2010. Aichi biodiversity targets. Convention on Biological Diversity, Montréal, Québec, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/

Cooke, S. J., and J. C. Vermaire. 2015. Environmental studies and environmental science today: inevitable mission creep and integration in action-oriented transdisciplinary areas of inquiry, training and practice. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 5(1):70-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-014-0220-x

Coristine, L. E., A. L. Jacob, R. Schuster, S. P. Otto, N. E. Baron, N. J. Bennett, S. J. Bittick, C. Dey, B. Favaro, A. Ford, L. Nowlan, D. Orihel, W. J. Palen, J. L. Polfus, D. S. Shiffman, O. Venter, and S. Woodley. 2018. Informing Canada’s commitment to biodiversity conservation: a science-based framework to help guide protected areas designation through Target 1 and beyond. FACETS 3:531-562. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0102

Council of Canadian Academies. 2019. Greater than the sum of its parts: towards integrated natural resource management in Canada. Council of Canadian Academies, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Courter, J. R. 2011. Graduate students in conservation biology: bridging the research - implementation gap. Journal for Nature Conservation 20:62-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2011.10.001

Cram, F., and H. Phillips. 2012. Claiming interstitial space for multicultural, transdisciplinary research through community-up values. International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies 5(2):36-49. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcis.v5i2.89

Cumming, S. G., and G. W. Armstrong. 2001. Divided land base and overlapping forest tenure in Alberta, Canada: a simulation study exploring costs of forest policy. Forestry Chronicle 77(3):501-508. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc77501-3

Cumming, S. G., K. L. Lefevre, E. Bayne, T. Fontaine, F. K. A. Schmiegelow, and S. J. Song. 2010. Toward conservation of Canada’s boreal forest avifauna: design and application of ecological models at continental extents. Avian Conservation and Ecology 5(2):8. https://doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00406-050208

Cvitanovic, C., and A. J. Hobday. 2018. Building optimism at the environmental science-policy-practice interface through the study of bright spots. Nature Communications 9(1):3466. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05977-w

Dasgupta, S. 2017. Experience or evidence: How do big conservation NGOs make decisions? Monga Bay News, 21 November.

Davidson-Hunt, I. J., N. Deutsch, and A. Miller. 2012. Pimachiowin Aki cultural landscape atlas: land that gives life. Pimachiowin Aki Corporation, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

De Grandpré, L., D. Pureswaran, M. Bouchard, and D. Kneeshaw. 2018. Climate-induced range shifts in boreal forest pests: ecological, economic, and social consequences. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 48(3):v-vi. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2018-0058

Devenish, C., D. Díaz Fernández, R. Clay, I. Davidson, and I. Yépez Zabala, editors. 2009. Important bird areas Americas: priority sites for biodiversity conservation. BirdLife International, Quito, Ecuador.

Dilling, L., and M. C. Lemos. 2011. Creating usable science: opportunities and constraints for climate knowledge use and their implications for science policy. Global Environmental Change 21(2):680-689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.11.006

Ducks Unlimited Canada. 2014a. Wetland road crossings hydrological monitoring design and data summary. Ducks Unlimited Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Ducks Unlimited Canada. 2014b. Operational guide: Forest road wetland crossings. Ducks Unlimited Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Enquist, C. A. F., S. T. Jackson, G. M. Garfin, F. W. Davis, L. R. Gerber, J. A. Littell, J. L. Tank, A. J. Terando, T. U. Wall, B. Halpern, J. K. Hiers, T. L. Morelli, E. McNie, N. L. Stephenson, M. A. Williamson, C. A. Woodhouse, L. Yung, M. W. Brunson, K. R. Hall, L. M. Hallett, D. M. Lawson, M. A. Moritz, K. Nydick, A. Pairis, A. J. Ray, C. Regan, H. D. Safford, M. W. Schwartz, and M. R. Shaw. 2017. Foundations of translational ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15(10):541-550. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1733

Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2018a. First new Indigenous protected area in Canada: Edéhzhíe Protected Area. Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Québec, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2018/10/first-new-indigenous-protected-area-in-canada-edehzhie-protected-area.html

Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2018b. Migratory birds: beneficial management practices. Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Québec, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/avoiding-harm-migratory-birds/beneficial-management-practices.html

Environment Canada. 2014. Recovery strategy for Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis) in Canada (proposed). Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Evans, M. C., and C. Cvitanovic. 2018. An introduction to achieving policy impact for early career researchers. Palgrave Communications 4:88. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0144-2

Expert Panel for the Review of Environmental Assessment Processes. 2018. Building common ground: a new vision for impact assessment in Canada. Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Fernández, R. J. 2016. How to be a more effective environmental scientist in management and policy contexts. Environmental Science and Policy 64:171-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.07.006

Finney, G. 2013. Improving forest habitat management beyond regulatory compliance for the conservation of bird biodiversity and species at risk across Canada. SFI Inc. Conservation & Community Collaboration Grant Program, Final Report. Sustainable Forestry Initiative & Bird Studies Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

First Nations Information Governance Centre. 2014. Ownership, control, access and possession (OCAP^TM): the path to First Nations information governance. The First Nations Information Governance Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

FitzGerald, A. M., D. M. Whitaker, J. Ralston, J. J. Kirchman, and I. G. Warkentin. 2017. Taxonomy and distribution of the imperilled Newfoundland Gray-cheeked Thrush, Catharus minimus minimus. Avian Conservation and Ecology 12(1):10. https://doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00976-120110

Forest Stewardship Council Canada Working Group. 2004. National Boreal Standard. FSC Canada, Montréal, Québec, Canada.

Forsyth, T. 2008. Political ecology and the epistemology of social justice. Geoforum 39:756-764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.12.005

Gadgil, M., F. Berkes, and C. Folke. 1993. Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio 22:2-3.

Government of Canada. 2016. Tri-agency open access policy on publications. Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: http://www.science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/h_F6765465.html?OpenDocument

Government of Canada. 2017. Indigenous peoples and communities. Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100013785/1529102490303.

Government of Canada. 2018. Ongoing negotiations. Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100030285/1529354158736.

Grant, S. 2015. Stepping out of the silo: science through a community and social justice lens. Webinar hosted by the Union of Concerned Scientists, 26 June. [online] URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xu9rBemg6vI&feature=youtu.be

Gregr, E., M. Granados, T. Poisot, and J. T. Kerr. 2017. Open data: two little words with huge implications for Canada’s environmental assessment process. National Observer, 2 May.

Gwich'in Social & Cultural Institute. 2005. Gwich'in traditional knowledge policy. Gwich'in Tribal Council, Inuvik, Nunavut, Canada.

Haché, S., P. Sólymos, T. Fontaine, E. Bayne, S. Cumming, F. K. A. Schmiegelow, and D. Stralberg. 2014. Habitat of Olive-sided Flycatcher, Canada Warbler, and Common Nighthawk in Canada. Boreal Avian Modelling Project, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Harding, C., L. Reitsma, and J. Lambert. 2017. Guidelines for managing Canada Warbler habitat in the northeast and mid-Atlantic regions. High Branch Conservation Services, Hartland, Vermont, USA.

Hoag, H. 2019. How Canada’s newest national park faces the wrongs of the past-and guards our climate future. Audubon.

Houde, N. 2007. The six faces of traditional ecological knowledge: challenges and opportunities for Canadian co-management arrangements. Ecology and Society 12(2):34. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02270-120234

Indigenous Circle of Experts. 2018. We rise together: the Indigenous circle of experts’ report and recommendations. Indigenous Circle of Experts.

Innovation Science and Economic Development Canada. 2018. Model policy on scientific integrity. Innovation Science and Economic Development Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/052.nsf/eng/00010.html

Institute on Governance. 2019. Roundtable on Indigenous knowledge and Western science: summary of literature. Institute on Governance, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK). 2018. National Inuit Strategy on Research. Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Istvanffy, J. 2011. A guide to Aboriginal harvesting rights: fishing, hunting, and gathering. Legal Services Society, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Jacob, A. L., J. W. Moore, C. H. Fox, E. J. Sunter, D. Gauthier, A. R. Westwood, and A. T. Ford. 2018. Cross-sectoral input for the potential role of science in Canada’s environmental assessment. FACETS 3:512-529. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0104

Kareiva, P., C. Groves, and M. Marvier. 2014. The evolving linkage between conservation science and practice at The Nature Conservancy. Journal of Applied Ecology 51:1137-1147. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12259

Karst, A. 2010. Conservation value of the North American boreal forest from an ethnobotanical perspective. Canadian Boreal Initiative, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, David Suzuki Foundation, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and Boreal Songbird Initiative, Seattle, Washington, USA.

Kennedy, J., and T. Cheskey. 2016. Canada Warbler International Conservation Initiative Roundtable. Proceedings from the 6th North American Ornithological Congress, 16-20 August. Washington, D.C., USA.

Kirkness, V. J., and R. Barnhardt. 2001. First Nations and higher education: the four R’s - respect, relevance, reciprocity, responsibility. Pages 1-21 in R. Hayoe and J. Pan, editors. Knowledge across cultures: a contribution to dialogue among civilizations. Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.

Kneeshaw, D. D., A. Leduc, C. Messier, P. Drapeau, S. Gauthier, D. Paré, R. Carignan, R. Doucet, and L. Bouthillier. 2000. Development of integrated ecological standards of sustainable forest management at an operational scale. Forestry Chronicle 76(3):481-493. https://doi.org/10.5558/tfc76481-3

Kothari, A., P. Camill, and J. Brown. 2013. Conservation as if people also mattered: policy and practice of community-based conservation. Conservation and Society 11(1):1-15. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.110937

Kowalczewska, K., and J. Behagel. 2019. How policymakers’ demands for usable knowledge shape science-policy relations in environmental policy in Poland. Science and Public Policy 46(3):381-390. https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scy065

Kuhnlein, H. V., and M. M. Humphries. 2017. Traditional animal foods of Indigenous Peoples of northern North America. Centre for Indigenous Peoples’ Nutrition and Environment, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Québec, Canada. [online] URL: http://traditionalanimalfoods.org/

Kutz, S., and M. Tomaselli. 2019. “Two-eyed seeing” supports wildlife health. Science 364(6446):1135-1137. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau6170

La Sorte, F. A., D. Fink, P. J. Blancher, A. D. Rodewald, V. Ruiz-Gutierrez, K. V. Rosenberg, W. M. Hochachka, P. H. Verburg, and S. Kelling. 2017. Global change and the distributional dynamics of migratory bird populations wintering in Central America. Global Change Biology 23(12):5284-5296. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13794

Lang, D. J., A. Wiek, M. Bergmann, M. Stauffacher, P. Martens, P. Moll, M. Swilling, and C. J. Thomas. 2012. Transdisciplinary research in sustainability science: practice, principles, and challenges. Sustainability Science 7(Supplement 1):25-43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-011-0149-x

Langdon, S., R. Prosper, and N. Gagnon. 2010. Two paths one direction: Parks Canada and aboriginal peoples working together. George Wright Forum 27(2):222-233.

Lavoie, J. 2018. Canada’s new Indigenous Protected Area heralds new era of conservation. The Narwhal, 12 October.

Lemos, M. C., and B. J. Morehouse. 2005. The co-production of science and policy in integrated climate assessments. Global Environmental Change 15:57-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.09.004

Loehle, C., P. Van Deusen, T. B. Wigley, M. S. Mitchell, S. H. Rutzmoser, J. Aggett, J. A. Beebe, and M. L. Smith. 2006. A method for landscape analysis of forestry guidelines using bird habitat models and the Habplan harvest scheduler. Forest Ecology and Management 232:56-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2006.05.040

Luckert, M., D. Haley, and G. Hoberg. 2011. Policies for sustainably managing Canada’s forests: tenure, stumpage fees, and forest practices. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Łutsël K’é Dene First Nation. 2016. About Ni hat'ni Dene - Protecting the land of our ancestors and the land of our future generation. Łutsël K’é Dene First Nation, Northwest Territories, Canada.

Lynch-Stewart, P., I. Kessel-Taylor, and C. Rubec. 1999. Wetlands and government: policy and legislation for wetland conservation in Canada. Issues Paper, No 1999 - 1. North American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada), Canadian Wildlife Service Environment and Climate Change Canada, Gatineau, Québec, Canada.

MacKinnon, D., C. J. Lemieux, K. Beazley, S. Woodley, R. Helie, J. Perron, J. Elliott, C. Haas, J. Langlois, H. Lazaruk, T. Beechey, and P. Gray. 2015. Canada and Aichi Biodiversity Target 11: understanding ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ in the context of the broader target. Biodiversity and Conservation 24(14):3559-3581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-1018-1

Mahon, C. L., E. M. Bayne, P. Sólymos, S. M. Matsuoka, M. Carlson, E. Dzus, F. K. A. Schmiegelow, and S. J. Song. 2014. Does expected future landscape condition support proposed population objectives for boreal birds? Forest Ecology and Management 312:28-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.10.025

Marra, P. P., E. B. Cohen, S. R. Loss, J. E. Rutter, and C. M. Tonra. 2015. A call for full annual cycle research in animal ecology. Biology Letters 11:20150552. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0552

Marshall, B. 2016. Facts and figures of the Canadian Mining Industry 2016. The Mining Association of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://mining.ca/documents/facts-and-figures-2016/

McCracken, J., S. Mackenzie, M. Gahbauer, M.-A. Hudson, and A. Camfield. 2012. The Canadian migration monitoring network - taking the pulse of Canada’s migratory birds. Picoides June 2012:14-15.

McNamee, K. 2010. Filling in the gaps: establishing new national parks. George Wright Forum 27(2):142-150.

McNie, E. C. 2007. Reconciling the supply of scientific information with user demands: an analysis of the problem and review of the literature. Environmental Science and Policy 10(1):17-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2006.10.004

Mining Association of Canada. 2017. Towards sustainable mining, 2017 progress report. The Mining Association of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Moore, J. W., L. Nowlan, M. Olszynski, A. L. Jacob, B. Favaro, L. Collins, G. L. T.-L. Williams-Davidson, and J. Weitz. 2018. Towards linking environmental law and science. FACETS 3:375-391. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0106

Moose Cree First Nation (MCFN). 2018. How do we identify and protect birds and wildlife in our Homelands? MCFN News 1.

Morissette, J. L., E. M. Bayne, K. J. Kardynal, and K. A. Hobson. 2019. Regional variation in responses of wetland-associated bird communities to conversion of boreal forest to agriculture. Avian Conservation and Ecology 14(1):12. https://doi.org/10.5751/ACE-01355-140112

Morse, B., J. Benidickson, S. Elgie, R. Flewelling, M. Mallet, and K. Loon. 2005. Aboriginal issues in Canada’s boreal forest. National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy Boreal Forest Program, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Moser, S. C. 2016. Editorial overview: transformations and co-design: co-designing research projects on social transformations to sustainability. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 20:v-viii. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.10.001

Nadasdy, P. 1999. The politics of TEK: power and the “integration” of knowledge. Arctic Anthropology 36(1-2):1-18.

National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Inc. (NCASI). 2014. Compilation of Canadian provincial and federal regulations relevant to forest management activities. Special Report No. 14-03. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.

National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Inc., and Forest Products Association of Canada (NCASI and FPAC). 2016. Handbook of forestry practices for migratory birds. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.

Nelson, M. 2005. Paradigm shifts in Aboriginal cultures? Understanding TEK in historical and cultural context. Canadian Journal of Native Studies 25(1):289-310.

North American Bird Conservation Initiative Canada. 2016. State of North America’s birds 2016. North American Bird Conservation Initiative Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Northwest Boreal Landscape Conservation Cooperative (NWB LCC). 2015. Strategic plan 2015-2025, version 1.0. NWB LCC, Anchorage, Alaska.

Nuna, R. 2002. First Nations initiatives in boreal forest management. Pages 1-2 in Aboriginal issues in boreal forest management. Proceedings of the National Aboriginal Forestry Association, 27-28 May, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

NWT Species at Risk. 2018. 2017-18 Stewardship project summary. NWT Species at Risk, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.nwtspeciesatrisk.ca/content/2017-18-stewardship-project-summary

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry. 2017. Best management practices for the protection, creation and maintenance of Bank Swallow habitat in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

Ontario Stone, Sand & Gravel Association. 2017. Bank Swallows (Riparia riparia): fact sheet. Ontario Stone, Sand & Gravel Association, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.

Paci, C., A. Tobin, and P. Robb. 2002. Reconsidering the Canadian Environmental Impact Assessment Act: a place for traditional environmental knowledge. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 22(2):111-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-9255(01)00095-6

Page, G. G., R. M. Wise, L. Lindenfeld, P. Moug, A. Hodgson, C. Wyborn, and I. Fazey. 2016. Co-designing transformation research: lessons learned from research on deliberate practices for transformation. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 20:86-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.09.001

Palmer, M. A. 2012. Socioenvironmental sustainability and actionable science. BioScience 62(1):5-6. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.2

Papillon, M., and T. Rodon. 2017. Indigenous consent and natural resource extraction. IRPP Insight (16):1-25.

Park, A., K. Puettmann, E. Wilson, C. Messier, S. Kames, and A. Dhar. 2014. Can boreal and temperate forest management be adapted to the uncertainties of 21st century climate change? Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 33(4):251-285. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2014.858956

Parks Canada. 1994. Guiding principles and operational policies. Minister of Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Parsons, M., K. T. Fisher, and J. Nalau. 2016. Alternative approaches to co-design: insights from indigenous/academic research collaborations. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 20:99-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.07.001

Prairie Habitat Joint Venture (PHJV). 2014. Prairie Habitat Joint Venture Implementation Plan 2013-2020: the western boreal forest. Report of the Prairie Habitat Joint Venture. Environment Canada, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Rametsteiner, E., and M. Simula. 2003. Forest certification—an instrument to promote sustainable forest management? Journal of Environmental Management 67(1):87-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-4797(02)00191-3

Ramírez-Castañeda, V. 2020. Disadvantages of writing, reading, publishing and presenting scientific papers caused by the dominance of the English language in science: the case of Colombian PhD in biological sciences. bioRxiv 28. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.15.949982

Redford, K. H., P. Coppolillo, E. W. Sanderson, G. A. B. Da Fonseca, E. Dinerstein, C. Groves, G. Mace, S. Maginnis, R. A. Mittermeier, R. Noss, D. Olson, J. G. Robinson, A. Vedder, and M. Wright. 2003. Mapping the conservation landscape. Conservation Biology 17(1):116-131. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01467.x

Reed, S. E., S. L. Thomas, A. T. Bednarek, D. A. Dellasala, M. C. Evans, C. Lundquist, M. B. Mascia, T. Y. McPherson, and J. E. M. Watson. 2018. Roles for scientific societies to engage with conservation policy. Conservation Biology 32(3):513-515. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13092

Reid, R. 2014. The Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement: unlikely allies pursuing conservation and sustainable development in Canada’s boreal regions. Philanthropist 26(1):65-73.

Reo, N. J., K. P. Whyte, D. McGregor, M. Smith, and J. F. Jenkins. 2017. Factors that support Indigenous involvement in multi-actor environmental stewardship. AlterNative 13(2):58-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180117701028

Rogers, K. H. 1997. Operationalizing ecology under a new paradigm: an African perspective. Pages 60-77 in S. T. A. Picket, R. S. Ostfeld, M. Shachak, and G. E. Likens, editors. The ecological basis of conservation: heterogeneity, ecosystems, and biodiversity. Chapman and Hall, New York, New York, USA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-6003-6_7

Safford, H. D., S. C. Sawyer, S. D. Kocher, J. K. Hiers, and M. Cross. 2017. Linking knowledge to action: the role of boundary spanners in translating ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15(10):560-568. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1731

Salomon, A. K., K. Lertzman, K. Brown, K. B. Wilson, D. Secord, and I. McKechnie. 2018. Democratizing conservation science and practice. Ecology and Society 23(1):44. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09980-230144

Stevenson, M. J. 2004. Decolonizing co-management in northern Canada. Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, March.

Stiegman, M. L., and H. Castleden. 2015. Leashes and lies: navigating the colonial tensions of institutional ethics of research involving Indigenous peoples in Canada. International Indigenous Policy Journal 6(3):2. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2015.6.3.2

Stralberg, D., D. Berteaux, C. Drever, M. Drever, I. Naujokaitis-Lewis, F. K. A. Schmiegelow, and J. A. Tremblay. 2019. Conservation planning for boreal birds in a changing climate: a framework for action. Avian Conservation and Ecology 14(1):13. https://doi.org/10.5751/ACE-01363-140113

Stralberg, D., A. Camfield, M. Carlson, C. Lauzon, A. Westwood, N. K. S. Barker, S. J. Song, and F. K. A. Schmiegelow. 2018. Strategies for identifying priority areas for songbird conservation in Canada’s boreal forest. Avian Conservation and Ecology 13(2):12. https://doi.org/10.5751/ace-01303-130212

Stralberg, D., S. M. Matsuoka, A. Hamann, E. M. Bayne, P. Sólymos, F. K. A. Schmiegelow, X. Wang, S. G. Cumming, and S. J. Song. 2015. Projecting boreal bird responses to climate change: the signal exceeds the noise. Ecological Applications 25(1):52-69. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-2289.1

Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). 2015. SFI 2015-2019 standards and rules. SFI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). 2018. Canadian conservation grants. SFI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. [online] URL: https://www.sfiprogram.org/conservationgrants/

Temby, O., and P. Stoett, editors. 2017. Towards continental environmental policy? North American transnational networks and governance. State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, USA.

Temper, L., and D. Del Bene. 2016. Transforming knowledge creation for environmental and epistemic justice. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 20:41-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.05.004

Tengö, M., E. S. Brondizio, T. Elmqvist, P. Malmer, and M. Spierenburg. 2014. Connecting diverse knowledge systems for enhanced ecosystem governance: the multiple evidence base approach. Ambio 43(5):579-591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0501-3

Théberge, D., M.-A. Picard, J. Leguerrier, J.-M. Beaudoin, and F. Grenon. 2019. Initiative for knowledge co-creation in collaboration with Indigenous communities. Basic approach: ethics of research. Report submitted to Natural Resources Canada, Québec, Chair of Educational Leadership in Indigenous Forestry, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada.

Thompson, A. W., L. S. Prokopy, K. Floress, and D. C. Weinkauf. 2011. A method for incorporating community priorities into GIS: challenges, choices, and directions for landscape planners. Landscape Journal 30:299-312. https://doi.org/10.3368/lj.30.2.299

Tondu, J. M. E., A. M. Balasubramaniam, L. Chavarie, N. Gantner, J. A. Knopp, J. F. Provencher, P. B. Y. Wong, and D. Simmons. 2014. Working with northern communities to build collaborative research partnerships: perspectives from early career researchers. Arctic 67(3):419-429. https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic4416

United Nations. 2008. United Nations declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples. United Nations, New York, New York, USA.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Native American policy syllabus. Fish and Wildlife Service Intergovernmental Activities, Part 510, Working with Native American Tribes. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., USA.

Wall, T. U., E. McNie, and G. M. Garfin. 2017. Use-inspired science: making science usable by and useful to decision makers. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15(10):551-559. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1735

Walsh, J. C., L. V Dicks, and W. J. Sutherland. 2015. The effect of scientific evidence on conservation practitioners’ management decisions. Conservation Biology 29(1):88-98. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12370

Wells, J., and P. J. Blancher. 2011. Global role for sustaining bird populations. Pages 7-22 in J. V. Wells, editor. Boreal birds of North America: a hemispheric view of their conservation links and significance. First edition. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.

Wells, J., D. Childs, F. Reid, K. Smith, M. Darveau, and V. Courtois. 2014. Boreal birds need half: maintaining North America’s bird nursery and why it matters. Boreal Songbird Initiative, Seattle, Washington, USA, Ducks Unlimited Inc., Memphis, Tennessee, USA, and Ducks Unlimited Canada, Stonewall, Manitoba, Canada.

Wells, J., F. Reid, M. Darveau, and D. Childs. 2013. Ten cool Canadian biodiversity hotspots: how a new understanding of biodiversity underscores the global significance of Canada’s boreal forest. Boreal Songbird Initiative, Seattle, Washington, USA, Ducks Unlimited Inc., Memphis, Tennessee, USA, and Ducks Unlimited Canada, Stonewall, Manitoba, Canada.

Wells, J. V. 2008. Birder’s conservation handbook: 100 North American birds at risk. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400831517

Wells, J. V, editor. 2011. Boreal birds of North America: a hemispheric view of their conservation links and significance. Studies in Avian Biology 41.

Westwood, A., L. R. Reitsma, and D. Lambert. 2017b. Prioritizing areas for Canada Warbler conservation and management in the Atlantic northern forest of Canada. High Branch Conservation Services, Hartland, Vermont, USA.

Westwood, A. R., C. Harding, L. Reitsma, and D. Lambert. 2017a. Guidelines for managing Canada Warbler habitat in the Atlantic northern forest of Canada. High Branch Conservation Services, Hartland, Vermont, USA.

Westwood, A. R., J. D. Lambert, L. Reitsma, and D. Stralberg. 2020. Prioritizing areas for land conservation and forest management planning for the threatened Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis) in the Atlantic northern forest of Canada. Diversity 12:61. https://doi.org/10.3390/d12020061

Westwood, A. R., M. Olszynski, C. H. Fox, A. T. Ford, A. L. Jacob, J. W. Moore, and W. J. Palen. 2019c. The role of science in contemporary Canadian environmental decision-making: the example of environmental assessment. UBC Law Review 52(1):243-284.

Westwood, A. R., S. P. Otto, A. Mooers, C. Darimont, K. E. Hodges, C. Johnson, B. M. Starzomski, C. Burton, K. M. A. Chan, M. Festa-Bianchet, S. Fluker, S. Gulati, A. L. Jacob, D. Kraus, T. G. Martin, W. J. Palen, J. D. Reynolds, and J. Whitton. 2019b. Protecting biodiversity in British Columbia: recommendations for developing endangered species legislation. FACETS 4:136-160. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2018-0042

Westwood, A. R., C. Staicer, P. Sólymos, S. Haché, T. Fontaine, E. Bayne, and D. Mazerolle. 2019a. Estimating the conservation value of protected areas in Maritime Canada for two species at risk: the Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus cooperi) and Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis). Avian Conservation and Ecology 14(1):16. https://doi.org/10.5751/ace-01359-140116

Wilson, S., J. F. Saracco, R. Krikun, D. T. T. Flockhart, C. M. Godwin, and K. R. Foster. 2018. Drivers of demographic decline across the annual cycle of a threatened migratory bird. Scientific Reports 8:7316. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25633-z

Wolfe, B. B., M. M. Humphries, M. F. J. Pisaric, A. M. Balasubramaniam, C. R. Burn, L. Chan, D. Cooley, D. G. Froese, S. Graupe, R. I. Hall, T. Lantz, T. J. Porter, P. Roy-Leveillee, K. W. Turner, S. D. Wesche, and M. Williams. 2011. Environmental change and traditional use of the Old Crow flats in Northern Canada: an IPY opportunity to meet the challenges of the new northerm research paradigm. Arctic 64(1):127-136. https://doi.org/10.14430/arctic4092

Wyatt, S. 2008. First Nations, forest lands, and “aboriginal forestry” in Canada: from exclusion to comanagement and beyond. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38(2):171-180. https://doi.org/10.1139/X07-214

Young, J. C., K. A. Waylen, S. Sarkki, S. Albon, I. Bainbridge, E. Balian, J. Davidson, D. Edwards, R. Fairley, C. Margerison, D. McCracken, R. Owen, C. P. Quine, C. Stewart-Roper, D. Thompson, R. Tinch, S. Van den Hove, and A. Watt. 2014. Improving the science-policy dialogue to meet the challenges of biodiversity conservation: having conversations rather than talking at one-another. Biodiversity and Conservation 23:387-404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0607-0

Young, N., S. J. Cooke, S. G. Hinch, C. DiGiovanni, M. Corriveau, S. Fortin, V. M. Nguyen, and A. M. Solås. 2020. “Consulted to death”: personal stress as a major barrier to environmental co-management. Journal of Environmental Management 254:109820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109820